The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the Romantic movement, significantly changing artistic and intellectual expression. Romanticism, which emphasised passion, individualism, and the sublime, emerged as a response against the strict formalism and rationalism of the Enlightenment and Neoclassicism. This movement, which frequently emphasised the fantastic features of the world and the human spirit, aimed to convey the depths of human experience, the secrets of nature, and the power of imagination.
Themes like nature, mythology, history, and the exotic drew artists of the romantic era, who explored these subjects with a newly discovered emotional intensity and freedom. As a reflection of the idea that the natural world represented the sublime—a term that describes something both beautiful and terrible that may evoke a strong emotional response—they frequently portrayed the untamed, wild landscapes and the dramatic forces of nature. Ivan Aivazovsky’s stormy seascapes, Albert Bierstadt’s stunning mountain panoramas, and Caspar David Friedrich’s reflective landscapes are examples of this obsession with the sublime.
In addition to their intense curiosity about the human condition, the Romantic artists also explored themes of love, death, bravery, and the paranormal. The eerie portrayals of war and madness by Francisco Goya, the mystical and symbolic visions by William Blake, and the potent portrayal of human misery by Théodore Géricault in “The Raft of the Medusa” are just a few examples of how these artists explored the intricacies of the human psyche via their works.
Romantic art was centred on individualism and self-expression, with artists frequently referencing their feelings and experiences. The emphasis on subjectivity is evident in the self-portraits of painters such as Eugène Delacroix and Philipp Otto Runge, as well as in the landscape paintings of John Constable, which portrayed the shifting emotions of the English countryside. Romantic artists infused their work with their passion and vision, becoming more than passive observers of the world.
Other artistic mediums, such as poetry, literature, and music, flourished throughout the Romantic era and were all united by their investigation of Romantic topics. Cross-pollination of ideas and styles was prevalent, with artists frequently interacting with current literary and philosophical movements. Paintings by poets and illustrators like William Blake and Henry Fuseli, who creatively combined visual and literary arts, demonstrate this. The Romantic era was a complex and ever-evolving cultural phenomenon that differed throughout many nations and areas rather than a single, cohesive movement. The Norwich School concentrated on regional landscapes in England, whereas the Nazarenes in Germany aimed to revitalise spiritual and holy paintings. The beauty of the American wilderness was depicted by Hudson River School artists like Thomas Cole and Albert Bierstadt, who also reflected the era’s distinct spirit of exploration and discovery.
1. Francisco Goya
One of the early masters of the Romantic movement, Francisco Goya, played a crucial role. His creations are a love of nature, unusual subjects, human ingenuity, and emotional expression—all core elements of Romanticism3. Goya broke from the established artistic norms of his day with his painting, which represents a fresh perspective that prioritised emotional effect over the formality of the Neoclassical and Rococo styles3. His ability to blend historical background with emotion demonstrates a thorough understanding of the sociopolitical milieu of his time.
Goya’s Romanticism revolves around his emphasis on the human experience, especially freedom and individual rights. In his early writings, he vigorously opposed institutional and theological corruption, clearly depicting the struggles of the lower classes against the elite3. His paintings function as social commentary, portraying with an uncommon acerbic quality the harshness and hypocrisy of the aristocracy and clergy3. With this critical examination of society, Goya could portray the social changes of the late 18th and early 19th centuries and establish himself as more than just a painter but also a commentator on the state of humanity amid turbulent times.
2. William Blake
William Blake is regarded as a founding member of the Romantic movement who combined poetry and creative expression to realise his principles. His writings exemplify the fundamental ideas of Romanticism, emphasising intense feelings, individual experiences, and frequently a revolt against the rigidity and logic of the previous Enlightenment era2. Blake was a crucial voice in this century because of his ability to portray mystical visions and themes of social and political revolution through his art’s rich imagery and intellectual profundity.
Blake’s work combines passionate, personal vision with neoclassical ideals. His works frequently depict biblical or historical characters amid striking settings, echoing the moral and symbolic undertone of Romantic art14. His work embraces the chaotic beauty of nature and the human experience, departing from his contemporaries’ rational and restrained forms, as evidenced by its rich detail and emotionality.
3. John Martin
John Martin is a well-known artist from the Romantic era, known for his dramatic and evocative paintings that frequently feature biblical motifs and apocalyptic scenarios. Large landscapes filled with tiny figures are a recurring theme in his works, highlighting how little humanity matters in the face of the majesty and omnipotence of nature. His standing in the Romantic movement, which strongly emphasised the sublime, has been cemented by his ability to inspire fear and wonder by his artistic prowess.
Dramatic lighting and vast architecture are hallmarks of Martin’s style, evocative of the sublime attributes praised in Romantic art. His historical landscapes have a strong emotional and visual effect since they frequently depict biblical stories and apocalyptic occurrences. Paintings such as “The Fall of Babylon” and “Belshazzar’s Feast” demonstrate his ability to combine vivid colours and dynamic compositions that arouse sensations of awe and dread with innovative settings and narrative depth.
4. Thomas Cole
The Hudson River School was founded by Thomas Cole, a group of American landscape painters mostly credited with introducing Romanticism into American painting. Being the movement’s prominent personality, Cole played a crucial role in adapting the sensibility and methods of European Romantic landscape painting to the American setting. His paintings praised the wild beauty of the American West, frequently adding theological and moral allegories to the surrounding landscape.
Cole’s creative approach was defined by his meticulous attention to detail and dramatic use of light and atmosphere to arouse feelings in the audience. Inspired by European Romantic painters such as J.M.W. Turner and Caspar David Friedrich, he modified their sensibility to depict the distinct landscapes of the Northeast of the United States. Cole’s compositions frequently emphasised the tremendous power of nature by featuring expansive, sweeping vistas that dwarfed the human forms inside them.
5. Caspar David Friedrich
One of the main protagonists of the German Romantic movement, Caspar David Friedrich, is renowned for his expansive, enigmatic, and atmospheric landscape and seascape paintings. His writings established the idea of the Sublime as a fundamental preoccupation of Romanticism by proclaiming the insignificance of humanity against the overpowering grandeur of nature. Friedrich’s paintings exuded a strong sense of solitude and silence, which defined his unique style. He frequently employed the “Rückenfigur” method, which involves painting figures observing the scenery from behind, letting the audience participate in the experience. Although he closely followed the scenery for his works, his imagination response to the atmosphere of the Baltic Coast and the Harz Mountains tinted them.
6. Albert Bierstadt
German-American painter Albert Bierstadt was well-known for his contributions to the Romantic movement, especially in landscape painting. He was famous for his expansive paintings that perfectly encapsulated the majesty and majesty of the American West. Known for his dramatic lighting, meticulous attention to detail, and beautiful, almost glowing quality, Bierstadt was one of the most accomplished Western landscape painters of the 19th century. To emphasise the majesty and force of nature, Bierstadt frequently used dramatic, romantic lighting and sweeping, panoramic compositions that dwarfed the human forms within them. His exacting colour selections and attention to detail added to his works’ brightness and powerful emotional effect.
7. Ivan Aivazovsky
Growing up in Feodosia’s Black Sea coastal village, Aivazovsky developed a strong bond with the sea as a child. His closeness to the sea greatly impacted his creative development. Early recognition of Aivazovsky’s aptitude led to his enrolment at the Imperial Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg, where he refined his abilities and experimented with various approaches, including the brilliance of paintings from the Dutch Golden Age and the impact of European Romanticism. The sea grew to be the central theme of Aivazovsky’s extensive corpus of work. He distinguished himself as a renowned marine painter by his ability to depict the constantly shifting moods of the sea, the play of light and shadow, and the turbulent strength of the ocean. Aivazovsky’s paintings demonstrated a fantastic grasp of seascapes, conjuring up images of breaking waves and a salty breeze for the observer.
8. John Constable
An important figure in early 19th-century English landscape painting was John Constable. His realistic and lifelike portrayals of the English countryside have made him regarded as one of the forerunners of the Romantic movement. Constable preferred truthful portrayals of the natural world and in-depth observations of nature above the overly idealised landscapes that were popular at the period. His vivid, realistic colour scheme and solid and expressive brushstrokes defined Constable’s distinct style. He aimed to represent the transient effects of weather, light, and atmosphere, which he frequently captured in his impressionistic and spontaneous oil sketches. Constable also used novel techniques in his portrayals of water and foliage, such as combining red and green layers to give the impression of movement and depth.
9. Henry Fuseli
Swiss-born painter Henry Fuseli was a prominent figure in the Romantic movement, especially in Britain. He was well-known for his vivid, dramatic, and frequently gruesome paintings that explored the paranormal and subconscious. Fuseli’s unique style was defined by his mastery of chiaroscuro, or dramatic contrasts between light and dark, and his deft use of figure foreshortening to heighten the compositions’ dramatic impact. His writings frequently addressed subjects from literature, poetry, and the dream world and included emotional solid intensity.
10. Eugène Delacroix
Leading the Romantic movement, Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) was renowned for his dramatic subject matter, vibrant compositions, and deft use of colour. He is considered by many to be among the best French painters of the 1800s. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism are two later creative periods whose work demonstrates his influence. Visible brushstrokes, bold, expressive use of colour, and dynamic compositions that evoke movement and emotion are characteristics of Delacroix’s works. Peter Paul Rubens, a Baroque painter and the master of the Venetian School, served as his primary source of inspiration. He used a unique method to highlight his topic’s dramatic and energetic aspects.
11. James Ward
English painter and engraver James Ward (1769–1859) greatly impacted the Romantic movement in British art. He is regarded as one of the best animal painters ever and is well-known for his lively and vibrant depictions of horses and other animals. Ward’s unique aesthetic was defined by a Romantic sensibility, dramatic compositions that frequently alluded to the majesty and force of nature and rich colouring. The paintings of George Morland and Peter Paul Rubens, whose styles significantly influenced the evolution of his artistic vision, tremendously affected him.
12. Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
French Neoclassical painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780–1867), who bridged the two artistic movements, was a prominent figure in the Romantic movement. Despite supporting Neoclassicism, Ingres also included Romanticism in his paintings, which made him a distinctive and significant personality in 19th-century art. Ingres, who personified the Neoclassical style, was renowned for his exact line, painstaking draughtsmanship, and search for the perfect beauty. But his paintings also had sensual, experimental elements—like the anatomical deformities in “La Grande Odalisque”—that foreshadowed later avant-garde movements.
13. George Stubbs
English painter George Stubbs (1724–1806) is renowned for his superb depictions of horses and other animals. His art is regarded as a component of the Romantic movement, which focused on emotion and organic subjects throughout Europe in the later half of the 18th century. Stubbs spent eighteen months dissecting horses to learn more about their skeletal and muscular systems because equine anatomy deeply fascinated him. His paintings accurately and scientifically depict the animals’ lifelike appearance, demonstrating this meticulous attention to detail. Stubbs’s art was mainly focused on horses, and he gave his horse pictures a sense of strength, grace, and energy. Stubbs successfully portrayed the soul and feelings of his subjects, establishing a solid bond between the observer and the animal.
14. Théodore Géricault
French painter Théodore Géricault (1791–1824) was crucial to the Romantic movement. His intensely dramatic and emotional pieces, including “The Raft of the Medusa,” significantly influenced contemporary art’s development. The use of vivid colours, expressive brushwork, and an emphasis on expressing his characters’ unfiltered, visceral feelings were characteristics of Géricault’s style. He frequently employed accurate models to give his compositions a more realistic feel, some of whom were his friends. Géricault’s avant-garde methods and forward-thinking subjects significantly influenced Impressionism and Realism, among other artistic trends. The Romantic tradition was continued by artists like Gustave Courbet and Eugène Delacroix, who were greatly affected by his work.
15. Joseph Wright of Derby
Derby’s Joseph Wright’s Place in the Romantic Movement English landscape and portrait painter Joseph Wright of Derby (1734–1797) made a significant contribution to the Romantic period in painting. He is renowned for his innovative portrayals of the Industrial Revolution, which fused romanticism with realism. Wright’s Methods and Style of Painting Wright was famous for his skilful use of chiaroscuro, or the dramatic contrast of light and dark, to infuse his paintings with a feeling of mood and atmosphere. His candlelight passages, like “An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump,” are praised mostly for their emotive potency and technical mastery.
16. Francesco Hayez
The Pioneering Function of Francesco Hayez in Italian Romanticism Renowned Italian painter Francesco Hayez (1791–1882) was crucial in the country’s Romantic era. He is recognised for his magnificent historical paintings, political allegories, and superb portraits. He is regarded as the finest Romantic artist of Milan in the middle of the 19th century. Hayez’s Methods and Style of Painting Hayez’s was a fusion of Romanticism and Neoclassicism, emphasising dramatic subject matter and intense emotion. Rich colour, expressive brushstrokes, and a strong focus on his subjects’ psychological and narrative elements were standard features of his works.
17. Johan Christian Dahl
The Contribution of Johan Christian Dahl to the Development of Norwegian Landscape Painting Johan Christian Dahl, a Norwegian landscape painter who lived from 1788 to 1857, is regarded as the country’s first significant Romantic painter and the creator of the “golden age” of Norwegian painting. The term “the father of Norwegian landscape painting” is frequently applied to him. He is recognised as the first Norwegian artist to achieve an artistic calibre on par with the most important European artists of his era. Dahl’s Methods and Style of Painting Dahl’s depictions of Norwegian landscapes were distinguished by their romanticism mixed with realism. His skilful use of colour, expressive brushwork, and capacity to evoke mood and atmosphere in his landscape paintings made him well-known.
18. David Wilkie
Scottish painter Sir David Wilkie (1785–1841) greatly impacted the British Romantic movement. His genre sequences, which portrayed ordinary people’s everyday lives and social dynamics, made him famous. Early works by Wilkie, emphasising anecdotal events from everyday life and a thorough, precise technique, were influenced by Dutch genre painters of the 17th century. But during his travels abroad in the 1820s, his style took a sharp turn, becoming more audacious, expressive, and romantic. Wilkie frequently examined social and economic realities in his paintings, subtly commenting on society through his portrayals of commonplace individuals and activities. Works such as “The Penny Wedding” and “Distraining for Rent” demonstrated his interest in people’s everyday lives.
19. Philipp Otto Runge
Alongside Caspar David Friedrich, Philipp Otto Runge (1777–1810) was a prominent member of the German Romantic movement as a painter, draughtsman, and art theorist. Runde is renowned for his revolutionary colour theory, symbolic landscapes, and expressive portraiture. Before enrolling in private drawing sessions in Hamburg in 1797, Runge had no formal art training. Later, he studied at the Dresden Academy of Art and the Royal Danish Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture Academy in Copenhagen, where he made many Romantic poets, composers, and artists. Runge was highly affected by the mystical concepts of people such as Ludwig Tieck and Novalis and by the romantic ideals of subjectivity and emotional expression.
20. John Crome
John Crome was a prominent Romantic landscape painter from England who founded the Norwich School of Painters and painted many famous landscapes between 1768 and 1821. Since Crome lived his entire life in Norwich, scenes from the Norfolk region may be found in most of his paintings. Crome’s paintings stood out for their fresh, unique, and unaffected style and were centred on authenticity to nature. Dutch Realist landscape painters like Meindert Hobbema and Jacob van Ruisdael and British artists like Thomas Gainsborough heavily influenced him. Crome was a skilled draughtsman who was particularly good at drawing the English oak tree.
