Early Background and Introduction: 

Iranian miniature art, dating back to pre-Islamic times, is a small-scale painting on paper used as book illustrations or individual artworks in albums called ‘Muraqqa’. It has been popular in the West due to its longevity and better-preserved condition. Persian art originated in Iran, spread to China, developed, and returned to Iran during the Mongol dynasty. Persian artisans retained their work after the Arab conquest by painting pots and manuscripts, restoring depictions of animals, birds, and humans.

Nighttime in a city, Persian manuscript folio attributed to Mir Sayyid ‘Ali, Tabriz, Iran, c. 1540, Harvard Art Museums/Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Gift of John Goelet, formerly in the collection of Louis J. Cartier. https://www.worldhistory.org/

Persian miniature painting flourished under the Ilkhanate empire in the 13th century, with painters like Hossein Behzad and Reza Abbasi producing mesmerizing masterpieces. The art, which originated in the 3rd century CE with the illustrated book of the prophet Mani, Arzhang, reached its pinnacle in the 15th and 16th centuries. It emphasized illustration, creating visual representations of literary storylines for easier interpretation. Influenced by literary works like Ferdowsi’s “Shahnameh” and Nezami’s “Khamsa,” Persian miniature art was courtly and aristocratic with magnificent colours, balanced compositions, and great attention to detail. Tabriz, Shiraz, and Herat are well-known schools of Persian miniature painting, each with its own distinct qualities such as colour palette and proportions. Despite being inspired by Chinese and European art, Persian miniature paintings have managed to retain its Persian character and soul making it one of the famous art styles in the region. The tradition of Iranian miniature has survived Western influence and has many adherents. The Persian miniature had a significant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, such as the Ottoman miniature in Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India, especially Deccani Painting.

Important Characteristics

Persian paintings were unique in their visual and metaphorical elements, with a single plane composition, no fading light curtains, converging perspectives, or shadows, and no atmosphere or colour blends. Persian miniature art featured persistent characteristics such as even light, almond-shaped eyes, three-quarter and circular faces, concurrent spaces and time, and non-perspective depictions. Influenced by Sufism, Persian miniatures transcended space and time, giving them a sublime character. Persian artists used distinct frames with varying sky colours and flora to create parallel timelines. Male and female figures in Persian miniatures were typically dressed in similar attire, with headdresses distinguishing between the two. The era also influenced the style of headgear, with figures from the Safavid period known as “Red Heads” with a red rod atop their turban caps. Persian miniature paintings showed figures from different perspectives, with thumbs at a distance and elegant hand gestures. The feet of human figures often appeared in profile, and settings have elements of Egyptian art. Persian miniature paintings usually depicted scenes of royal hunts, wars, Persian mythology, and poetry, such as Ferdowsi’s “Shahnameh” and Persian literature’s most illustrated stories. European art greatly influenced Persian paintings, leading to the birth of half-nude figures, individual paintings of birds and botanical life, and modifications in the attire of the figures.

Dancing Dervishes, Folio from a Divan of Hafiz, attributed to Kamāl al-Dīn Bihzād, Herad, Afghanistan, 1480, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, https://www.worldhistory.org/

Materials and Techniques

Before establishing accurate visual forms, the amateur Persian painter had to study and practise duplicating masters’ works for years. Piercing animal skin with a small needle to trace lines below the image, then replacing it with blank paper and spreading charcoal powder over the poked sheet, was the technique used. Squirrel and Persian cat hair were utilised to make fine lines, and pigments were created from organic and nonorganic sources, as well as minerals, to produce vibrant colours. Some colours, however, were prone to damage and discoloration, resulting in a loss of richness. Single-page paintings grew increasingly prevalent in subsequent centuries, although illustrated books were preferred for aristocrats and royal courts. These masterpieces were created by a team of miniature painters, scribes, binders, gilders, and others working in a royal atelier or library under the guidance of a director.

Influential Schooling Styles

• Shīrāz school 

In the mid-14th century, the Mongols established a guild of Persian miniature painting artists in Shiraz, Iran. Early paintings featured ornamental colour and design, and the school evolved three unique styles. Under the Timurids, the school reached maturity around 1410-20, characterised by surreal, personal quality paintings with fewer characters, stylised stances, expressionless faces, and excellent landscapes. The Turkmen tribes conquered Shiraz in the mid-fifteenth century, beginning the third phase that valued Persian culture and promoting the arts. Significant alterations in style included vivid colouring, frequent use of black, and enrichment of landscape. Although it was no longer as significant during the Timurids, the Shiraz school of Islamic miniature painting remained an intriguing form of miniature painting.

Shiraz School, “Shahnamah”, Ferdowsi, https://www.iranchamber.com/

• Tabriz School 

Because of the location on the Armenian border, the Tabriz school arose in the 13th century, integrating Far Eastern and Armeno-Byzantine styles. The link between Shiraz and Tabriz schooling emerged in the 15th century, when painters migrated following Timur’s conquest of Baghdad and Tabriz. Many artists were brought to Samarkand and Iskandar Sultan’s court, where they transmitted their traditions while adapting to modern ideas. Jami’s poetry introduced fresh topics to Iranian miniature in the 16th century. The highlight of Tabriz school was that it provided full-scale illusions of scenery or landscapes inside constrained settings, such as royal structures and gardens.

Tabriz School, “Pandj Gandj”, Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, https://www.iranchamber.com/

• Herat School

Shāh Rokh commenced the Herāt school of miniature painting in western Afghanistan in the 15th century, and his son Baysunqur Mirza enhanced it. Herāt School largely illustrated manuscripts, poetry, and popular literature, frequently using scenes from the Persian epic Shah-nameh and other subsequent literature. The school relied on traditions from the Tabriz and Shiraz schools, though the concept of perspective had the largest influence. The stylised, tall, and thin figures on different planes were used to create the illusion one figure was behind the other. Kamal-od-Din Behzad was a notable Herat School painter who found his initial inspiration in the works of poets Jami and Navai, bringing miniature to its true maturity while depicting human forms in a harmonious, innovative, and dramatic manner. The Herat school was formed in the beginning of the 15th century, resulting in more proficient figure painting, sketching, and confident figure placement.

Herat School, “Khamseh”, Nezami, , https://www.iranchamber.com/

• Eṣfahān school

The Esfahan school of Persian miniature painting, pioneered by Reza Abbasi, a master of realistic themes and portraits, was an important trend in the early 17th century. The Kazvin style of portraiture influenced the school, which demonstrated the delicacy of hands, features, and clothing in its masterwork, Two Lovers. Pupils at the school included Mohammad Shafi and Moin Mosavver. However, following the master’s death, the school’s originality faded, resulting in a decline in miniature painting in Iran.

Famous Iranian Painters 

Throughout history, different painters have influenced painting, with Kamal al-Din Bihzad being the most acknowledged artist. Bihzad, an orphan trained by Mirak Naqqash, created a distinct style that represented the pinnacle of Persian painting. His style gained movement and vitality, losing much of its rigidity and formality, and was infused with reality and drama. He shifted the paintings’ themes to everyday life and created genre-like paintings with characters moving freely. Aqa Riza, also known as Riza-yi ‘Abbasi, was a brilliant miniature artist who was regarded as one of the period’s most inventive personalities. Sultan Muhammad, a 16th-century artist who was influenced by Bihzad and the Turkmen school of painting, was active in the Tabriz school of painting. He worked at the atelier of Shah Ismail I and had many pupils, including Tahmaps I. In addition to these artists, several other brilliant artists worked individually as well as in royal courts and ateliers, producing some of the most delicate and intricate works of art contributing to Iranian Miniature Painting. 

Drawing of a Man Attacked by a Bear by Riza-yi ‘Abbasi, falsely ascribed to Kamāl al-Dīn Bihzād, Qazvin, Iran, c. 1590-1595, The British Museum, London. https://www.worldhistory.org/

Rise of Indo-Persian Style of Painting

Indian miniature paintings have a rich history reaching back to the 9th century, although they did not become a highly known art form in India until the establishment of the Mughal Empire in 1526. Babur’s Mughal Empire was influenced by both Central Asian and Persian culture. Humayun expanded patronage for artists, ushering in the Mughal style of painting. Several painters from Iran were transported to India to work in Mughal courts, enabling for greater fusion of the Indo-Persian style.

With Persian literary subjects and border calligraphy, Mughal paintings are highly influenced by the ancient Persian miniature style. Mughal miniature painting borders display superb geometric harmony, a direct influence from the Persian and Islamic art worlds. Preparing pigments for Mughal miniature paintings was a time-consuming and tedious process that required expertise and patience. Mughal miniature paintings included a wide range of topics, including Hindu, Persian, Islamic, and European themes. Despite being greatly inspired by Persian traditions, Mughal miniature paintings finally formed a separate art style as a result of political and economic stability in the Mughal era. Mughal miniature paintings become increasingly realistic throughout time, including Indian motifs and literary topics. The most major change was the transition from the flat, two-dimensional Persian style to a more three-dimensional one, facilitated by the employment of an Indian-type brush.

Deccani Paintings

Deccani painting is a miniature painting style that developed in the late 16th century, proving to be a synthesis of indigenous and foreign art traditions inspired by immigrants and traders from diverse countries such as East Africa, Arab, Turkic, Central Asian, and Iranian territories. It has elongated figures that are evocative of Vijayanagar wall paintings but with a Persian influence. Deccani colours are rich and dazzling, with heavy emphasis on gold and white. The earliest evidence of Deccani Painting is a manuscript, Nujm-ul-ulm (1570) belonging from Bijapur, a major centre of the style. The sponsorship of Ibrahim Adil Shah II had a significant impact on the growth of Deccani paintings. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, paintings produced in the Muslim courts of the Deccan sultans represented a combination of local and foreign aesthetic influences, especially Iranian Miniature.  During Sultan Mahmud’s reign, the Mughal realm was divided into smaller, self-governing sultanates. The Nizam Shahis (r. 1496-1636), Adil Shahis (r. 1489-1686), and Qutb Shahis (r. 1512-1687) were the three most powerful and prominent among them contributed greatly to the history of Deccan court painting, having major centres at Ahmednagar, Golconda, Aurangabad, and Hyderabad, during the 18th century. Many Deccan sultans were great patrons of the arts who established artistic workshops and libraries attracting painters, calligraphers, poets, singers, and scholars from all over the world, including Persia.

Nan Va Halva (Breads and Sweets), Muhammad Baha’ al – Din – ‘Amili, Aurangabad, Deccan, India, C. 1690, Ink, Opaque watercolour and gold on paper, 23.5 X 14 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, https://mapacademy.io/

Influence of Iranian Miniature on Deccani Paintings During the Reign of Deccan Sultanates

Ahmednagar, the seat of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, was the birthplace of the Deccan sultanates’ oldest and most inventive paintings. The early Deccani paintings had basic but outrageous lines, possibly connected to works from Mandu, the capital of the Sultans of Malwa. Technical refinement occurred at the Ahmednagar atelier, as evidenced by three royal portraits from around 1575, likely painted by the same artist. These paintings showcased aesthetic advancements in Mughal, Safavid, and probably European realms. The last phase of royal patronage at Ahmednagar was marked by exquisite line drawings, resembling the linear quality of Iranian miniature. Bijapur, the capital of the Adil Shahi sultans, was a significant artistic centre, ranking second only to Mughal Delhi in terms of artistic output. Early known Bijapur paintings can be found in Persian books on astronomy marking the possible crossover. Bijapur art flourished under Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II, with nobility represented in leisurely comfort within palaces or in other royal pastimes set against a foliate dream-scape. The Qutub Shahis, known for their appreciation of Central Asian and Iranian artistic traditions, commissioned some of Golconda’s earlier paintings. The painting titled ‘The Darbar of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah as a Youth,’ dated around 1630, is one of the most skilfully depicted painting from this period, blending elements from Iranian miniature in terms of composition and forms.

Visit of Sufi singer Shir Muhammad to Abul Hasan Qutb Shah, later Golconda school,1720, https://deccanviews.wordpress.com/

Thus, there was a potential influence of Iranian miniature on Deccani style of paintings through resemblance in representational aspects such as detailing, colour palette, narrative and layered composition, emphasis on natural elements and decorative borders, and so on, though it is important to note the individual characteristic of Deccani paintings. Because of common aesthetic principles, cultural connection through migration, and parallel growth in various locations, there was an obvious crossover between the painting styles of Persian / Iranian miniature and Deccani paintings. Nonetheless, the Iranian miniature style continues to have a strong influence on the Mughal miniature style of India.

References:

Online Articles: 

• Aanya Yagnaraman, 8th April 2023, “From Persia to India: The Influences and Development of Mughal Miniature Painting”, Blog, Memeraki 
• “Deccani Painting”, July 25, 2023, Encyclopedia of India,  Encyclopedia.com
• Pegah Eidipour, 24th August 2021, “Persian Miniature Painting”, World History Encyclopaedia
• “Miniature Art: Iran’s Intangible Cultural Heritage,” 8th November 2021, Iran Safar
• Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia, February 6, 2011, “Shīrāz school.” Encyclopedia Britannica
• Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia, June 3, 2009,”Deccani painting.” Encyclopedia Britannica
• Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia, March 30, 2016, “Eṣfahān school,” Encyclopedia Britannica
• Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia, July 20, 1998, “Herāt school.” Encyclopedia Britannica
• Katy Kiamush, September 1998, “A brief history of Persian Miniature Painting”, Iranian Visual Arts, Iran Chamber Society

Websites:

• UNESCO, Silk Roads Programme

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